Library System Essay

Affirmation This exposition would not have been conceivable without the direction and the assistance of a few people who somehow contributed and broadened their important help with the arrangement and consummation of this investigation. Above all else, my most extreme appreciation to Mr. Raquel V.desello the Brgy.Chairman of Street whose truthfulness and support I will always remember. Mr. Dominic Sales has been my motivation as I obstacle all the impediments in the fruition this examination work. My true thanks likewise goes Mrs. De Leon for offering me the mid year temporary job openings in their gatherings and driving me chipping away at differing energizing tasks. I thank my individual comp.labmates in Trent Information First and other Group: Mr. Renz Paolo Cruz, Rochelle Dones for permit me to hand truck her blaze drive, and, for the animating conversations, for the busy time we were cooperating before a couple of moments minutes before barrier, and for all the pleasant we have had over the most recent two years. Likewise I thank my companions in face book that gave me at any rate their push to gave barely any sentence in my documentation Last however not the least, I might want to thank my family: my folks Mrs. Chanda Desello and Mr. Quemadge Desello, for bringing forth me at the primary spot and supporting me profoundly for a mind-blowing duration. Same as my accomplice on the off chance that review Lienard Magno Conceptual This report portrays our group’s usage of a library Management framework. We utilized the Entity-Relationship model to structure a database that will store and sort out the library’s information. We have Created the database utilizing vb6.0 and populated it with some example Data. The framework can monitor library cards, clients, Librarians, library areas, books, recordings, and the connections Between them. Utilizing vb6.0 and adodb, we have Made an Internet-based graphical UI that permits Customers and administrators to get to the framework remotely A basic library the board framework that gives following offices login, register, include class, include/expel book, search/issue book, bring book back. Language utilized is C# and vb is been utilized in code. One Admin client is now there once db is introduced with client name administrator and secret key administrator. Administrator client has additional functionalities like include class, include/expel books. These functionalities is impossible by basic client that registers. Secret key encryption †decoding has been utilized in venture. It’s straightforward venture where in all the occasion of the sum total of what structures has been dealt with in that goes about as business and information get to layer. All vB communications are in this record as it were. Section I Presentation Presently a day, in a profoundly innovative society, human profitability is made increasingly productive through the improvement of electronic contraptions. Presently, with the coming of such modernization in training, one approach to globalize the procedure of exploration is to understand that innovation is progressing at an unbelievability quick spot. PCs are not restricted to being utilized for amusement yet its job in instruction is additionally huge. In School, perusing materials are put away in libraries. Library is a spot where books and related materials are saved for use however not available to be purchased. It is likewise sorted out for use and kept up by an open body, an establishment or a private person. Also, it is a spot wherein we get data in any configuration and from numerous sources. The administrator needs to keep the room slick so it is helpful for learning. The curator is additionally the individual who is obligated for observing all the books that are acquired and returned by the borrowers. The defenders will propose the Library Books acquiring and Returning System for Taytay Elementary School situated at Taytay, Rizal, he Head Librarian, Ms. De Leon expressed that they are as of now utilizing the Dewey Decimal Library System. They are as yet using a manual framework. The library clients and the bookkeeper despite everything use card inventories in looking for understanding materials and use list card for the records of obtained and brought books back. The proponent’s study was what is which experience to the Library by the client, Librarian and how the Owner or the Administrator of the said school will offer a decent support to their customers to have a decent criticism. The examination will concentrate on exchange which done inside the Library like acquiring, returning of books by understudies, resources and staffs. Around there, the utilization of automated library framework is required in light of the fact that it is simpler and clearly it spares paper contrast with the manual library based. Different nations, for example, South America and Middle East. Articulation OF THE PROBLEMS library framework in doing exchanges with their customer bases. Explicitly this investigation pourpost to respond to the accompanying inquiries: 1. By what method can the framework helps the curator? 2. What are the sources of info required in the framework all together for the understudies/staff/guests to have the option to login/logout when entering and acquiring books? 3. What are the data and information expected to set up an electronic library arrangement of (tes) Taytay Elementary School. Extension AND LIMITATIONS Extension The framework is make for the library with the exception of simple route for administrator to make her work simple this is additionally for their client to hand truck books simple and to return likewise for information for unmistakably utilizing it.. Delimitation The different way,this study is limits for the proposed improvement mechanized library arrangement of Taytay Elementary School. Framework proposed to just one approved individual.

Motivation The Need to Achieve

Psychologists’ see on beginning of inspiration Motivation in sports vacillates from time and from individual to person. Its unusualness has seen numerous unremarkable athletes transform into champions and saints while incredible athletes transform into fair miscreants. The multifaceted nature of inspiration has prompted a few therapists concocting different clarifications on the wellspring of motivation.Advertising We will compose a custom paper test on Motivation: The Need to Achieve explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More As right on time as 1889, clinicians, for example, Norman Triplett had placed that inspiration is as aftereffect of social setting (Triplett, 1898; Carlson Heth, 2009). Despite the fact that quite a long while later numerous analysts likewise attempted to clarify what causes inspiration or absence of it from different perspectives, one thing they consistently conceded to was that people have no power over their inspiration procedure eventuall y. The discussions aside, inspiration originates from both our organic make up and experience (Harrnstein, 1972; Maslow, 1987). Hypotheses on inspiration One hypothesis on inspiration is the objective setting-hypothesis which proposes that numerous individuals are headed to progress estimated by at long last arriving at the ideal unequivocal end. Such people will work to accomplish these objectives particularly on the off chance that they are moderate in nature. This is on the grounds that ideal drive to succeed is accomplished as low or too significant standards will just work to debilitate the person. That is, he will be headed to progress by the closeness but then vulnerability of accomplishment which is quite certain. Hence, assignments which are quite certain, with moderate trouble and vicinity will be more rousing than those which are general and too hard to even think about achieving. Defining of objectives is just conceivable on the grounds that people have self assurance to succeed. This is what is hypothesized by the self-assurance hypothesis to clarify what drives people to accomplish. This hypothesis opines that people are intrinsically headed to develop and create and consequently our wellspring of inspiration is to some degree characteristic. Notwithstanding, this hypothesis perceives the job of outside elements as the principle activators of this intrinsic drive to succeed. The need to control the occasions of our lives so as to feel associated with others and be capable in our aptitudes is the essential wellsprings of our inspiration. Thus, individuals can control their contemplations and cognizant and channel them towards taking a stab at greatness (Murphy, 2009; Ryan Deci, 2000). Along these lines, we can control our wants for progress, and sentiments of delight and acknowledgment (Ryan Deci, 2000). The Need pecking order hypothesis of inspiration expresses that individuals are just headed to progress by those necessities which they have not fulfilled. Since, people have complex needs, they are fulfilled from base up with those on the more significant levels fulfilled first. As one climbs the pecking order of necessities, the drive to accomplish increments. Hence, the drive that an individual has for extinguishing his thirst or filling a vacant stomach is lower contrasted with that of accomplishing his maximum capacity or self completion which is the most elevated level of need.Advertising Looking for paper on brain science? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Incentive hypothesis of inspiration cuts across different speculations of inspiration. It to some degree fuses every one of these speculations in an offer to clarify the intricacy of inspiration. Motivating forces to move to more noteworthy statures can come in different structures. Others can be natural while others can be extraneous however they all go about as motivating forces towards progress. Fulfillme nt accomplished from taking an interest in exercises gives us the sentiment of joy and acknowledgment. This can be urging enough to drive us to progress. The compensations of joy and acknowledgment are normally inborn as proposed without anyone else assurance hypothesis. Outside upgrades enact these inward improvements. In any case, it must be noticed that outer and interior upgrades in some cases work inimically. Proceeded with use of outside improvements as a wellspring of inspiration may in the long run supplant the intrinsic drive to succeed. Like athletes, we want to win, develop ourselves and learn new thoughts. Then again, outwardly we can be driven by the longing having prizes, for example, decorations, advancement and cash among others. At the point when such rewards are not pending, we may lose our inspiration. (Baumeister Vohs, 2004; Carver Scheier, 2001). Be that as it may, when an outside improvement is presented, they lose their independence. Also, when such boost is p ulled back, our inspiration droops. On the other hand, such outside remunerations as trophies, grants, decorations and cash might be so instilled in us that they become pretty much piece of us. Henceforth, we will go an incredible length to accomplish them. In this situation, such outer upgrades nearly become natural since inability to achieve them will just push us to work more diligently, accordingly, raising our inspiration. Such outside improvements, when accomplished would turn out to be a vital part of our development, thus turning into a ‘biological need’. Since inherent improvements are not generally an assurance, there is have to locate a reasonable extraneous upgrades to drive us to progress. This ought to be finished with alert however as over utilization of outer improvements may in the end supplant inner boosts. Self-viability and confidence as sparks However, now and then we need the two boosts. In this manner, we won't make any endeavor to take an interes t in any action despite the fact that we may be guaranteed of accomplishment. Our absence of inspiration can be credited to absence of or low confidence and absence of or low self-efficacy.Advertising We will compose a custom article test on Motivation: The Need to Achieve explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More With self-adequacy, we can complete a self assessment of our abilities to accomplish any objective of any trouble and even without a hint of something to look forward to of succeeding. More, we can have the drive regardless of whether the objectives are not satisfactory. (Ormrod, 2006; Bandura, 1997). At the point when we have high self-adequacy levels we are profoundly determined, henceforth will consistently go an additional mile to make progress. Conflictingly, low self-viability levels lead to low inspiration as the need self conviction is indispensable for inspiration and making progress. Self-adequacy is a greater amount of being pompous (Luszczynska Sch warzer, 2005) which numerous individuals have criticized. When appropriately used, presumptuousness can inspire us to progress rather prompt our defeat the same number of accept. Be that as it may, there is a distinction between being pompous and feeling great one’s self which is named as confidence (Fishbein, Ajzen, 1975). Feeling great has the component of the feeling of having a place that can successfully and emphatically drive a person to progress. The serious idea of life’s challenges requires something beyond feeling better; the torment of losing, the delight of winning and the long exhausting long periods of training request responsibility and consistency that must be accomplished through high inspiration. Sense of self and objective direction as inspirations One must be moved to activity without anyone else regard; in any case, to continue the activity in spite of the difficulties, one needs objectives to accomplish. Such objectives must be set when an individ ual has high self-viability. Like a careless individual, vain individuals have been disregarded for the vast majority to accept that their sense of self will cloud their judgment. In any case, the personality can be a more noteworthy inspiration as we would consistently need to be the best. This is not normal for an objective situated person who might go to an incredible length to gain some new useful knowledge and develop. Without a doubt, a person who can locate a shared belief between being objective situated and sense of self arranged would, be that as it may, be increasingly fruitful (Walle, 1997; Locke Latham, 2006). Ends Due to the basic job that inspiration plays in the achievement in our lives, it is significant for us to comprehend what propels us. We ought to have the option to group improvements as outward or inborn. Such data is significant as it will help us in mapping out proper activity designs in our lives and detail courses in managing those occasions when we are m odest or exceptionally energetic (The British Psychological Society). Be that as it may, we should assume responsibility for our own lives and persuasive procedures by changing our perspectives, cutting a specialty for ourselves in nature we live in and turn out to be effectively associated with the exercises we take part in. Besides, focusing on the positive things, commending others and remaining around spurred colleagues will be an extraordinary boost.Advertising Searching for exposition on brain research? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Impediments of the article and how to improve the article These speculations on inspiration in life scarcely any absence of substantiating proof to help their various perspectives. Despite the fact that therapists contend their cases viably, they don't refer to different specialists to assert their cases. Additionally, they don't utilize genuine situations to demonstrate the legitimacy of a large portion of their attestations. Along these lines, there need to complete more research concentrates into the reasons for inspiration. They studies ought to reach out into different various fields other life, training, business and sports. In addition, there is overemphasis on inspiration as the sole driver of life overlooking different perspectives, for example, otherworldliness. Achievement in life doesn't altogether rely upon inspiration the same number of profound pioneers and individuals accept that to prevail throughout everyday life; we need the awesome force that originates from God. There is have to examine the brain science of the individuals who totally put stock in otherworldliness as the drive to progress. Furthermore, since there is proceeded with utilization of execution upgrading drugs among numerous athletes, there is have to contemplate their brain science and what drives them into utilizing such medications to improve their presentation. References Alexander, P., Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2000). â�

Strategic Planning at Chronicle Gazette Term Paper

Vital Planning at Chronicle Gazette - Term Paper Example arranging will help the associations in meeting changing circumstances; their supervisors can have the option to survey outer dangers to creating procedures (Bashir Ahmad Fida, 482). Vital arranging helps in creating attainable procedures according to interlinking operational approaches and assets. Current counseling report anticipate the potential natural changes like financial, business, political, legislative, social viewpoints. The report creates methodologies as per the dangers that The Chronicle Gazette is confronting. New arrangement of procedures are created for Susan and her group to meet the unsteady business condition in the paper business (Colley 256). Monetary emergency influenced print media industry as they detailed diminishing incomes and number of distribution. The U.S. based paper industry is confronting the test from the magazines. Every day distributing papers are confronting steady destruction rates. During the year 2011, paper market of the US revealed with 1,392 dailies. In any case, the market was accounted for with right around 1700 dailies during the year 1985 (Stateofthemedia). Paper industry is confronting another issue as the notice is lessening. From the table, it is seen that the print media commercial decreased in a constant way during the most recent 10 years. In the year 2003, it announced as $44941 and in 2012 as $19943. Despite what might be expected, on the web or computerized media promoting expanded a great deal. Internet publicizing detailed as $1216 in the year 2003 and it expanded to $3375 in the year 2012 (Stateofthemedia.org). USA based paper piece of the overall industry is constrained by the New York Times and Wall Street Journal. These two associations are additionally confronting the dangers of the worldwide financial downturns. New York Times announced day by day flow of 1,379,806 and end of the week course detailed with 1,321,207 in the year 2014. Income pace of the paper announced as US$37.33M or 22% during the year 2013, while, income detailed as US$30M in the year 2012. Notwithstanding, the

The Principles of Marketing - Free Essay Example

Principle Of Marketing Contents Introduction Concept Product decision Research summary and strategy Pricing decision Promotion and media respond Launching schedule Marketing budget and profitability Conclusion References Introduction Concept Seeing a rising trend of health conscious food, especially in nutrition food category, we decided to develop a new sport nutrition product that suitable and convenience for everyone, which could be an alternative choice for people who are busy and could not spend much time for a meal. According to Euromonitor International Pass Port Sport Nutrition In The United King Dom (2013a, 2013b), there was an increases by 16 percent in current value terms in 2012, archived GBP260 million. Energy and nutrition bars sees increased 18 percent of volume with a current value increased of 12 percent in 2012. Protein product has been seen a growing non-stop since 2012. The increased of sport nutrition substitute grows steadily. There is also a forecast of raising a steady value of 13 percent, to reach GBP478 million in 2017 of sport nutrition. As can be seen, energy and nutrition food industry rises steadily in recent year. We chose Nestle as our existing company because Nestle is a national wide company famous for producing health and nutrition food. Our product is a new kind of energy bar, based on the innovative and reputation that Nestle has, we can make it easier to launch our product. Product decision After conducting a research about energy and nutrition bars flavour, one common bar has sweet and fruity flavour, it is very rare for a customer to find and to buy a salty bar. Hence, to differentiate our product, we decided to develop a new flavour for our energy and nutrition product, which will be a salty energy and nutrition bar, which has cheese flavour. The main ingredients of our product is fat-free cottage cheese, which contains important protein-base nutrition. This ingredient helps people to build and enhance muscle, plus, it has very nice taste. The other ingredients of our product are: peanut, peanut butter, flour, sugar, Lo Han Guo powder, sea salt. Because this product contains peanut, therefore a word of advice for people who are allergic to peanut should not consume this product will be printed outside the package. We use aluminium foil to pack our product in order to keep it clean and fresh. We segmented our target customer in demographic, psychographic and b ehavioural. In demographic, our customer are both female and male, but we may focuses more on male, age from 18 to 36, working people and students. In psychographic, our customers are people who like to go to the gym, like to build muscle or have a busy life, do not have much time for a proper meal. In behavioural, our customers are people who seek benefit of convenience food and purchase and consume at least one energy bar a week. We name our product C-bar, C stands for cheese. The up selling point of our product is it is unique, it is the first cheese flavour nutrition bar with low-calorie. C-Bar does not only help build and enhance muscle, but it is also a suitable alternative for a meal in rush hour, people can eat a C-Bar whenever they feel hungry and they do not have enough time to go home and cook a proper meal. Research summary and strategy We conducted a research on energy and nutrition food industry. The result showed that energy and nutrition food industry grows rapidly from 2007 and 2012, and to be seen as continue in future. Table 1Sales of Snack Bars by Category: Value 2007-2012 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Breakfast Bars 244.8 257.2 262.4 269 272.9 275.9 Energy and Nutrition Bars 18.3 24 30.9 38.2 45.7 55 Fruit Bars 16.1 15.5 15.1 14.7 14.4 14.2 Granola/Muesli Bars 56.7 62.5 69.7 82.8 95.4 107.1 Other Snack Bars 33.9 43.6 54 58.7 64.1 71.4 Snack Bars 369.9 402.8 432.1 463.3 492.4 523.5 Source: Euromonitor International from official statistics, trade associations, trade press, company research, store checks, trade interviews, trade sources The table below is the market share of nutrition and energy food category from 2009 to 2012. Table 2 Energy and nutrition food marketshare Brand Company 2009 2010 2011 2012 Maximuscle Maxinutrition Ltd 36.7 36.0 36.2 36.3 Precision Engineered Holland Barrett Retail Ltd 13.6 12.9 14.8 14.6 Myprotein Hut Group Ltd,The 5.1 6.4 8.7 10.8 Reflex Reflex Nutrition Ltd 3.2 3.2 4.2 4.2 USN USN UK Ltd 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.1 Sci-Mx Nutrition Sci-Mx Nutrition LLP 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.9 CNP Professional CNP Professional Ltd 4.2 4.1 4.0 3.9 Phd PhD Nutrition Ltd 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.4 Prolab Natrol UK Ltd 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 EAS EAS UK Ltd 4.3 4.4 2.9 1.9 Others 16.8 15.8 15.3 14.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Euromonitor International from official statistics, trade associations, trade press, company research, store checks, trade interviews, trade sources As can be seen, Maxinutrition Ltd is the leader of this market, its market share is 2.5 times the second largest Holland Barrett Retail Ltd. We conducted an online survey which asked customers about their favourite flavour, frequency of purchase and price range they would like to spend for an energy bar. The result shows that only 25 percent of people purchase energy bar 2 to 3 times a week while 52 percent said that they rarely buy one. The most favourite flavour is chocolate with 60 percent of people agreed. People are more willing to pay for an energy bar with price range from GBP1.00 to GBP1.99, and only 20 percent willing to buy an energy bar at GBP2.00 to 2.99 or less than GBP0.99. According to Trotts (2011) evaluation criteria of long term strategy fit, in 3 year, we planned on: Make strategic partnership Gyms and fitness centre Research and develop new flavours Television commercials Member cards And in 5 years, we would like to: Introduce in student halls, canteens, pharmacy Make commercials using celebrities Research and develop new product targeting children and elderly And our channel fit would be retailers, fitness centre and gym, supermarket, general food store and vending machine. Pricing decision Since our competitors are existing companies with wide range of different products, they use Product Line Pricing, pricing different products within the same product range at different price points. Table below show the competitors lowest retail price on a nutrition energy bar product. Table 3 Lowest retail price of competitors Competitors Price from Quality Phd 1.45 High Powerbar 1.49 High USN 1.64 Low Quest bar 2.44 Low Myprotein 2.99 Low Maximuscle 3.79 High Seeing a gap in middle high price and middle high quality, we decided our product will be at that position. Diagram 2 Position map of energy and nutrition food industry (with C-Bar) Based on the participants response on how much they are willing to pay for an energy bar and our aim to produce a product with medium high quality and medium high price, we used competitor-based pricing, consider how our competitor do and how they set price (Kotler and Amstrong, 2013). Our cost per unit is GBP0.59, it is reasonable to set the price at GBP2.49. We set our price a little bit high though all of our respondent would willing to buy the product at GBP1.99. Therefore, we also use psychological pricing, to make the customer believe the product is cheaper than it really is and our product quality is worth to buy, so that customer who seeks value and quality may be attracted to it. Promotion and media respond Due to very high advertisement fee on TV, advertising on social network sites such as YouTube and Facebook seems more cost-effective. Facebook and YouTube are rated the most popular and paid for online advertising on social networks. According to the US Marketers/ Agencies (2011), 69 percent of 230 respondents asked thought advertising on Facebook is good and excellent, while 46 percent agreed that YouTube is another good idea for paid advertising online. And people who thought Twitter is good for advertising only account for 36 percent of 230 respondents. Our product aims to customer both male and female, age from 18 and above, who have a busy life and do not have enough time for a proper meal or like to build muscle. Most people may have television at their home, but there is still a number of people who cannot afford to have a television or a television license at home, especially student who lives far from home. Thanks to the development of high technology and internet, ever yone owns mobile phone, laptop and tablets. And as a matter of fact, they watch YouTube and log in Facebook or Twitter almost every single day. First of all, people cannot deny that Facebook is one of the most popular social networks in the world, which have the largest number of users. Facebook can help business approach any kind of target customers and increase brand awareness, enhance the firms reputation. With the feature Like on Facebook, whenever a Facebook user click Like on something, as a consequence, it create a story on peoples new feed and that persons story timeline. This feature also makes Facebook users become free advertisers for businesses. Plus, Facebook is cost-effective promotion, it charge by cost-per-click and cost-per-thousand impression bid (Facebook.com). Businesses only have to pay for the impressions or clicks they receive, and can manage this via their ads manager. Twitter has opened up advertising to small commerce lately (The Guardian, 2013). Adve rtising on Twitter will also be charged by cost-per-click and cost-per-thousand impressions and tweets (Twitter.com). Advertising on Twitter just as advertising on Facebook, the more people subscribe to your business Facebook fan page or Twitter account, the more popular that business gets. Advertising on YouTube is a huge opportunity to get more customers. People watch clips and movies on YouTube every day, and there is always a small advertising launches before the movie clips starts, people can choose either to watch it or to skip it after 5 seconds. Hence, chances are people can still get some information of the product advertised, and if they think it is interesting, they will click on the link leads to the full advertisement and may be, subscribe to it. The more views hit on an YouTube clips, the more popular it gets. YouTube, just like other social networking site, they charge by cost-per-click and cost-per-thousand impressions. Plus, it is available in every platform: com puter, laptop, mobile phone, tablets and any computer operation systems such as Mac and Microsoft. We also thought of advertising on mobile phone via games. A small advertisement will pop up when user start a game, this helps us to attract more customers as well as using social networking site because mobile phone games are getting more and more popular nowadays. The best feature of it is the share feature, if a person thinks our advertisement is interesting, he or she will share it to other people, and the number of people watching our advertisement keep increase as long as people keep sharing it. This is a very cost-effective way of advertising and an excellent way of attracting consumers. Launching schedule Description Responsible department Date Category plans available Research and Development 01.02.2014 Brief National Account Management NAM 01.04.2014 Discussions with retailers Customer Director 01.06.2014 Inventory available Logistic 01.12.2014 Launch to media, trade and sales Sales 01.02.2014 Product in store Logistic 01.03.2014 Advertising and promotions starts Marketing 01.03.2014 The above table is our schedule of launching our product. The category plan which is in charged by Research and Development department would be available on the 1st of February 2014, then 2 months later will be the brief National Account Management by our National Account Management team. Discussion with retailers would be planned to occur on the 1st of June 2014 by Customer Director department. In the last month of 2014, the inventory would be available, Logistic department would be responsible for it. Media launch, trade and sales are in charged by Sales department will be started on the 1st of February 2015. On the 1st March 2015, Logistic department will make sure that our products are available in store and Marketing department will start advertising and promotion campaigns. Marketing budget and profitability We forecast that our sales in the first year may bring a loss of profit of GBP0.34 million. Our customers are 17.6 million women and men age from 18 to 36, our penetration is 5 percent of 5 million target market, that equals 250,000. We expected them to purchases once bar per week, the number of pack sold is 13 million, charged price GBP1.11. Our net sale as forecasted is GBP 14.43 million. The table below is our sales forecast. Table 4 Sales forecast Men + Women (18-36) 17.6 million Target market 5 million Penetration 250,000 (5%) Purchase frequency 1 / week No. of packs 13 million Pricing (average to customers) ÂÂ £1.11 Net sales ÂÂ £14.43 million We will spend GBP7.1 million on advertising as table below details Table 5 Advertising spend Advertising ÂÂ £ 4.5 million Promotion, including DM ÂÂ £1.8 million Market research ÂÂ £800k Though our first and second year will see a loss in profitability, we hope to rise our profit to GBP0.18 million in the third year. The table below is our brand profitability in 3 years. Table 6 3 years sales forcast (in million) Description Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Net sales ÂÂ £14.43 ÂÂ £15.87 ÂÂ £17.46 Gross margin ÂÂ £6.76 ÂÂ £7.44 ÂÂ £8.18 Marketing spend ÂÂ £7.10 ÂÂ £7.50 ÂÂ £8.00 Brand profitability (ÂÂ £0.34) (ÂÂ £0.06) ÂÂ £0.18 Conclusion C-bar is a new product that has never been launched before. It has the flavour and quality that we are confident to be its uniqueness. Although it will be difficult to launch a new kind of energy and nutrition bar with saltiness and cheese flavour, we hope that it will be developed in the future with careful plan. References Facebook, n. d. Facebook for business. [Facebook] Available at: https://www.facebook.com/business [viewed 19.01.2014] Hern, A., 2013. Twitter opens up advertising to small businesses in the UK. The Guardian [online]. Available at:https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/14/twitter-opens-up-advertising-to-small-businesses-in-the-uk [viewed 19.01.2014] Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G., 2013 Principles of Marketing. 15th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education. Chapters 10 and 11. YouTube, n. d. Advertising on YouTube [YouTube] Available on: https://www.youtube.com/yt/advertise/ [viewed 19.01.2014] Trott, P., 2011 Innovation Management and New Product Development. 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education. P 446-448, P528-529. 1

The Process Of Designing A Class - 795 Words

Diabetes has become an increasing debilitating disease to many people. Many of these people are unaware that they even have this disease until other complications develop. Studies have shown that with education in self-management practices, people can improve his or her quality of life. This paper will discuss the process of designing a class that will educate the community on these practices. The institution’s philosophy will be addressed, explain the educational need for this population group, a class description, the targeted audience, different learning styles, resources needed, learning outcomes, and learner objectives need to complete this class. Diabetic Education for the Community Based on statistics from the Centers for Disease Control website, 17.0 million people in the United States, approximately 6.2% of the population, have diabetes (CDC, 2015). Diabetes is a chronic disease that can cause severe complications resulting in kidney failure, blindness, amputation, loss of sensation, and cardiovascular disease when not controlled. Studies published have demonstrated that many of the debilitating effects of diabetes are avoidable through consistent glucose control, regular medical care, and self-management practices. These studies have shown that people with diabetes that attend diabetes self-management education (DSME) outpatient classes have better clinical outcomes compared to those that have not participated in these classes (Walton, Snead,Show MoreRelatedMy Experience With My Mentor883 Words   |  4 PagesI can still remember the talk with my friends before September when I told them how scared I was to take this c ourse since I could not imagine me, myself, to handle a 90-minute class on my own. When I was informed that I was assigned to an ALI level 6 class, I was shocked. 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A Lesson in Responsibility “The Things They Carried” by...

People carry things with them all the time on a daily basis. They might be physical, emotional or spiritual things. Some people could carry a traumatic past while others simply carry a bag of groceries into their house. The things one carries defines them as a person and brings out their qualities as well as their defects. Some people might think of those things as burdens while others see them as a way out of reality or as something to push them forward, something to believe in. In â€Å"The Things They Carried† by Tim O’Brien, O’Brien portrays a captivating message of responsibility to his readers. Its moral explains how we sometimes let ourselves â€Å"out† of our problems, because we would like to be somewhere pleasant. The excerpt†¦show more content†¦Each soldier carried with them items, some tangible others intangible, which helped them to adapt their minds and escape from the setting so that they could survive the traumatic events taking place. â€Å"Ted Lavender carried six or seven ounces of premium dope.† â€Å"Rat Kiley carried comic books.† The soldiers in the story do not only have a physical battle to deal with but also a mental one. Most of these items were a necessity in order to bear the war. However, there were a few items that the soldiers carried not because they had to or because they needed it to survive physically but because they needed it in order to survive emotionally. One soldier carried his wife’s pantyhose; another carried a new testament. One soldier permitted his items to take control of him and become an obsession, a trauma that took his focus away from his priorities, the war, and his men. First Lieutenant Jimmy Cross carries with him a pebble given to him by Martha, a girl with whom he is in love and wishes to be back home with, along with letters and pictures of her. He would read the letters at the end of a long day in a foxhole he dug. He would sometimes lick the seal of the envelope because he knew that Martha’s tongue had been there. This obsession distracts Cross from the war and from his platoon. †¦She [Martha] wrote beautifully about herShow MoreRelatedThe Things They Carried by Tim Obrien1426 Words   |  6 PagesThe War at Home The Things They Carried, by Tim O’Brien, transports the reader into the minds of veterans of the Vietnam conflict. The Vietnam War dramatically changed Tim O’Brien and his comrades, making their return home a turbulent and difficult transition. The study, titled, The War at Home: Effects of Vietnam-Era Military Service on Post-War Household Stability, uses the draft lottery as a â€Å"natural experiment† on the general male population. 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Whether it was the way Jimmy Cross uses the pebble to escape from his duties as a soldier or when Norman Bowker realizes that courage comes form within, not from receiving a Silver Star; O’Brien uses baggage as a symbol throughout the book to teachRead MoreThe Things They Carried By Tim O Brien1597 Words   |  7 Pages The Things They Carried is a breathtaking and captivating powerful war story memoir, which is beautifully and intensely well written by Tim O Brien. The novel explores the physical and emotional trauma of the Vietnam War and its impact on soldiers fears. 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Health in Comminities free essay sample

The Internet has a wealth of information and you are advised to use the Internet as often as possible to broaden your knowledge on certain topics. Prescribed books You are expected to purchase the following prescribed books for this module: Clark, MJ. 2008. Community health nursing: advocacy for population health. 5th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Edelman, CL Mandle, CL. 2006. Health promotion through the lifespan. 5th edition. St Louis: Mosby. Edelman and Mandle (2006) has very valuable information on health promotion and covers the entire life span, from birth to death. In addition to your study guide, this book is very important: you will find a wealth of information. Clark (2008) is a book on community health nursing that emphasises the dimensions model of community health nursing right through. This is a very valuable model which will help you to gain a holistic and systematic approach towards the individual, family and community. (viii) The information in these two books is complementary. Together with the study guide it will help you to gain the knowledge and skills you will need to supply health care to individuals, families and communities. Activities The activities are planned to either reinforce content, to guide you to tackle upcoming content, or to motivate you to think about issues. You will note that in part 2 of the study guide there is only one activity at the end of each learning unit: here we want you to apply the dimensions model of community health to a member of the family. Feedback on all these activities will be given in annexure A. This CMH2602 module runs parallel with the practice module for Community Health, CMH2126. The theory cannot be separated from the practice. Icons You will find a series of icons in the text to guide you as you progress with your studies. Activity When you see this icon, you will know that you must complete an activity. We may ask you to read a specific section in the prescribed literature, apply given information, think about topics that have not been introduced, find your own information or ask other people for information. Please read the instructions carefully. Assessment criteria This icon indicates the questions that you can use to assess your own understanding of the work. These questions are adapted from the outcomes. You are told what you should do to prove that you have met the learning outcomes. Prescribed reading When you see this icon, study or read the prescribed book as indicated, before continuing with the next section. Learning outcome This icon tells you how you will benefit in the field of practice if you know the content of the specific learning unit. The outcomes tell you what you will be able to do after you have studied the work. h Feedback This icon tells you what was expected from you when you did the activity. It will not necessarily give you all the facts but will give you guidelines on how to answer the question. Not all of the activities will have feedback because many of the answers are given in your prescribed books. (ix) Conclusion This module is designed to enable you to work with families in the community. It is based on the needs and problems of the family. It covers individuals who are part of the family and the family as part of the community. After completion of this module, together with the practice module, you will be able to take responsibility for practising as an independent community nurse in any community setting. PART 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS IN COMMUNITY HEALTH 2 Learning unit 1 Concepts and theories/ models in community health Outcomes Since theories/models provide you with the knowledge you need to practise community health in a scientific way, it is essential for you to be familiar with the various theories/models in the field to be able to apply them to community health. When you have worked through this learning unit you will be able to: * * * * 1. 1 describe various concepts in theoretical thinking explain selected theories/models in detail describe the key concepts and themes of the selected theories/models apply the theories/models to community health Introduction While we will discuss theories/models in general in this learning unit, we will also deal with several selected theories in more depth in order to indicate how they can be applied to community health. It is currently accepted that theories form the basis of community health. Since theories provide us with the knowledge we need to practise community health in a scientific way, it is essential for the community nurse to be familiar with the various theories/models in the field and to be able to apply them to community health. 1. 2 Theoretical thinking as a language The terms theory, model, conceptual framework, conceptual model are often used synonymously in literature. The literature reflects various conflicting opinions about the terms, their usage and meaning. According to Polit and Beck (2008:141) a conceptual model or a conceptual framework represents a more informal mechanism for organising and discussing phenomena or concepts, while theories are more formal in nature. Conceptual theories, frameworks and models are composed of concepts or constructs. These concepts or constructs are interdependent because they systematically demonstrate the relationship between variables. A model is a symbolic representation of concepts or variables with an interrelationship. A phenomenon is the abstract concept under study, often 3 used by qualitative researchers, while a concept is a description of the objects or events that form the basis of a theory. Both models and theories can describe and predict the relationship between phenomena. Models and theories are terms that are often used interchangeably in literature. The term theory is often used to refer to the subject content that student nurses must be taught in the lecture room to acquire the information they need to perform the nursing tasks in practice. Researchers such as Polit and Beck (2008:768) define theory as an abstract generalisation that presents a systematic explanation about the relationships among phenomena. Theories include principles for explaining, predicting and controlling phenomena. In all disciplines theories serve the same purpose. This purpose is to make scientific findings meaningful, and to make it possible to generalise. A theory is composed of concepts and constructs that are systematically related and that are also goal-oriented (Stanhope Lancaster 2006:196). Types of traditional theories include grand theories and middle-range theories. Grand theories describe and explain large segments of the human experience which are very broad. Middle-range theories explain more specific phenomena such as stress, self-care, health promotion and infant attachment. Metatheory is a term used to label theory about the theoretical process and theory development (Polit Beck 2008:141). Metaparadigm refers to the main concepts that identify the phenomena or ideas of interest to a discipline, in this case the discipline of nursing. They provide the boundaries for the subject matter of the discipline. The metaparadigm concepts for nursing include person, environment, health and nursing (Clark 2008:67). However, current literature suggests that a four-concept metaparadigm for the discipline of nursing is too limited and suggests additional concepts such as transitions, interaction, nursing process, nursing therapeutics, self-care, adaptation, interpersonal relationships, goal attainment, caring, energy fields, human becoming and other concepts. The best-known and most used concepts are however the first four: person, environment, health and nursing. 1. 3 Choosing a theory/model to apply to community ealth Choosing a suitable theory or model is not always an easy task ? especially when most theories are geared towards the care of individuals and were never designed to apply to groups or communities. The theory or model that is chosen must be flexible enough to be adapted to the community health situation and its aim must be to provide guidance for those who practise community health . The importance of the family or community network and the social network must both be clearly reflected, and the theory or model must be realistic and simple enough to understand and apply. In addition, the theory/model should harmonise with the community nurses views about the individual, the environment, personal health and community health. You may find that the theory that is chosen may not always fulfil all your expectations and that it may also not be applicable to all circumstances. You may often be required to make adjustments or to develop your own personal model on the basis of existing theories. 4 Activity Explain why community health nursing should be based on a model or theory. h Feedback You should have considered the following points: * * * * * 1. 4 A systematic approach is needed. Theories/models assist community nurses to evaluate health status and to plan, implement and evaluate effective nursing care. The model/theory used directs attention to relevant aspects of the client situation and to appropriate interventions. Epidemiologic models help in examining factors that influence health and illness. Nursing models suggest interventions to protect, improve and restore health. The dimensions model of community health nursing Clarks (2008:69) dimensions model of community health nursing is one of the few models designed for community health. This model is described in detail in your prescribed book (Clark 2008) and will therefore only be summarised here. This model is a revision of the previously titled Epidemiologic Prevention Process Model. The dimensions model incorporates the nursing process and the levels of prevention as well as an epidemiologic perspective on the factors influencing health and illness. The dimensions model consists of three elements: the dimensions of health, the dimensions of health care and the dimensions of nursing. The dimensions of health include: * * * * * * the the the the the he biophysical dimension psychological dimension physical environmental dimension socio-cultural dimension behavioural dimension health system dimension The dimensions of health care include: * * * primary prevention secondary prevention tertiary prevention The dimensions of nursing include: * * * * cognitive dimension interpersonal dimension ethical dimension skills dimension 5 * * process dimension reflective dimens ion You should study this model to enable you to assess the health status of individuals, families or communities and to guide your nursing interventions. Prescribed book Study chapter 4 in Clark (2008, or later editions), on the dimensions model of community health nursing. Activity (1) Name the three elements of the dimensions model of community health nursing. (2) List the dimensions included in each element. (3) Give an example related to the dimensions in each element that addresses the health of a population group. 1. 5 Orems self-care deficit theory of nursing Orem proposes a general theory of nursing which she calls the theory of self-care deficit. Orems theory focuses on peoples ability to practise self-care. The dominant theme of her philosophy of health is that people should be empowered and encouraged to practise their own self-care by means of their own efforts or with the help of significant others. Orems self-care deficit theory of nursing consists of three interrelated theories: the theory of selfcare, the theory of self-care deficit and the theory of nursing systems. This theory is consistent with community health, based on the following premises: * * * Individuals and groups must accept responsibility for their own health and consequently care for themselves. The community nurse should provide the necessary training and support that will enable individuals or communities to do this. The community nurse should intervene only when a deficit or need arises in the selfcare framework. The World Health Organization (WHO) also strongly emphasises that self-care and selfresponsibility play an important role in achieving the goal of optimal health. 1. 5. 1 Theory of self-care In order to understand the theory of self-care, one must first understand the concepts of self-care, self-care agency, basic conditioning factors and therapeutic self-care demand. Self-care include those activities and decisions which a person undertakes in order to maintain life, health and well-being. These activities are acquired by learning, and they contribute to the maintenance of human development and functioning. 6 Self-care agency refers to the ability of a person to exercise self-care in daily life. The ability to care for oneself is affected by basic conditioning factors: age, gender, developmental state, health state, socio-cultural factors, health care system factors, family system factors, patterns of living, environmental factors and resource adequacy and availability. Therapeutic self-care demand is the sum total of the measures which are called for at a particular time for the promotion and maintenance of health, development and general well-being. In the case of self-care, purposeful actions and steps are taken. Although selfcare should benefit an individuals health, his or her perception of self-care may not always promote good health, as is the case with a person who smokes in the belief that it reduces his or her stress levels. Self-care requisites refer to the reasons for which self-care is undertaken. The three categories of self-care requisites include universal, developmental, and health deviation. Universal self-care requirements include those processes which are essential for the normal functioning and maintenance of health and life, such as the following processes: * * * * * * having and maintaining sufficient fresh air/oxygen, water and food intake finding the balance between exercise and rest, and having social interaction avoiding dangers and obstacles that can compromise human functioning and well-being promoting human functioning and development in a group roviding care associated with elimination processes and personal hygiene keeping a balance between being alone and social interaction Developmental self-care requisites are divided into two categories: * * The first concerns the maintenance of those conditions which are favourable to a persons normal growth and development. The second is concerned with the prevention of those negative conditions, forces, influences and factors which can hinder and obstruct normal development. Awareness of such requirements reflects a persons level of development and his or her general capacity for self-care. Health deviation self-care is necessary for preventing illness, injury and retardation. It involves taking whatever steps are necessary for preventing or treating illness or disability effectively. The requisites for health deviation self-care include: * * * * * * seeking and securing appropriate medical assistance being conscious of and attending to the effects and results of pathologic conditions conducting medically prescribed diagnostic, therapeutic and rehabilitative measures attending to or controlling the negative effects of prescribed medical treatment effectively ccepting oneself as being in a specific state of health and in need of particular forms of health care developing and sustaining health-optimising lifestyles 1. 5. 2 Theory of self-care deficit The theory of self-care deficit forms the core of Orems general theory of nursing. According to this theory, an adult who is unable to practise self-care requires dependent care; this refers to an adult who does not have the ability to meet his or her own needs or 7 only has partial ability to take care of himself or herself. This may happen or example when a person falls ill and this illness generates new demands, requiring the implementation of complex measures and specialised knowledge. Orem cites the following examples of support or help which can be offered in such circumstances: * * * * * acting on behalf of a person or undertaking certain activities for this person until he or she can once again care for himself or herself more independently providing guidance and direction in the new situation providing physical and psychological support creating and maintaining a new environment which supports personal development providing appropriate relevant instructions A self-care deficit occurs where there is a discrepancy between the need for self-care and the ability to manage this self-care. In such circumstances the individual needs to be assisted and educated to administer whatever self-care he or she may need. In short, a self-care deficit occurs when a person is unable to practise appropriate self-care on his or her own or without external assistance. 1. 5. 3 Theory of nursing systems The theory of nursing systems consists of two components: the nursing agency, and nursing systems. The nursing agency refers to the characteristics of people who are trained as nurses that enable them to act, to know and to help others meet their therapeutic self-care demands by developing their own self-care agency. Nursing systems are created when nurses use their knowledge and skills to plan and implement nursing care where there are deficiencies in self-care. The aim of intervention by the nurse is to compensate for the self-care activities which the individual, family or community cannot maintain at an optimal level. These compensatory activities are classified into: * * * The wholly compensatory system where the community nurse becomes the self-care agent to compensate for the clients inability to maintain his or her own self-care. The community nurse cares for and supports the client wholly. For example, this would happen where a person is in a coma and cannot consciously look after himself or herself. The partly compensatory system where the client is capable of certain self-care measures but only to a limited degree. The aim of health care intervention is to lend support and carry out certain activities on behalf of the client until he or she is able to resume them again. The supportive/educational system where the client can manage self-care but needs the support and guidance of the community nurse. The community nurse regulates the selfcare agents performance and development so that he or she can function more independently (George 2002:126). Activity (1) Describe the different components of the self-care deficit theory of nursing. 8 (2) Explain what is meant by a self-care deficit. (3) A mother and her two-month-old baby visit your clinic. The baby is not gaining sufficient weight and the mother appears tired and stressed. Identify the self-care deficit in this particular case. h Feedback You should have covered the following points in your answer: (1) The mother is not able to care for herself with the demands of a new baby. (2) She therefore needs health education and advice on how to handle the situation. 1. 6 Neumans systems model/theory According to Neuman, her personal philosophy of helping each other live contributed to development of the holistic systems perspective of the her systems model. Neumans theory is based on: * * the two main components of stress and the individual or his or her bodys reaction to that stress the communitys reaction to certain stress factors (stressors) in the environment Neuman based her systems model on a general systems theory and regards the client as an open system which reacts to stressors in the environment. Stressors may be intra-personal, inter-personal or extra-personal. Intra-personal stressors occur within the client system boundary and correlate with the internal environment (eg feelings such as anxiety or anger within a person). Inter-personal stressors occur outside the client system boundary and have an impact on the system (eg stimuli between people such as role expectations). Extrapersonal stressors also occur outside the ystem boundaries, but are further away from the system than the inter-personal stressors (eg work or finances). Environment includes all the external and internal influences that surround the client system. The external environment exists outside the client system and the internal environment exists within the client system: * * * * The client system contains a basic structure or core construct (individual, family c ommunity) which is protected by lines of resistance. The basic structure includes system variables such as physiological, psychological, socio-cultural, developmental and spiritual variables. Penetration of the basic structure results in death. The normal level of health is identified as the normal line of defence which refers to the clients usual state of wellness and represents stability over time. When the normal line of defence is invaded or penetrated, the client system reacts, for example with symptoms of illness. The flexible line of defence prevents stressors from invading the system and is a dynamic state of wellness that changes over time. It can for example be altered in a relatively short period of time by factors such as inadequate sleep or food. The lines of resistance protect the basic structure and become activated when the normal line of defence is penetrated by environmental stressors. If sufficient energy is 9 * available, the normal line of defence is restored; but if the lines of resistance are not effective, death may follow. Reconstitution involves stabilisation of the system and movement backwards to the normal line of defence. Health care intervention takes place in the prevention modalities, that is the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of prevention. (Clark (2008:67)) Prescribed reading Study Neumans model in Clark (2008, or later editions). Activity (1) (2) (3) (4) Explain what Neuman means by client variables. Describe the concepts of line of resistance and normal line of defence. Describe Neumans view on health. Define the term stressor. This theory/model can also be applied to community health because a preventive approach is followed and because of its flexibility. 1. 7 Penders health promotion model Pender described a model which is applicable to community health in particular. This model is based on principles of health promotion and, to a certain extent, corresponds with the Health Belief Model. Penders health promotion model comprises three basic concepts, namely individual perceptions, variables which can influence healthy behaviour and the probability that actions will be taken to promote health: * * * Individual perceptions include factors such as how important health is seen to be, perceptions on control and effectiveness, the definition of health, the state of health, the advantages inherent in preventive measures, and possible obstacles. Variables include factors such as demography, income, literacy, culture and family health patterns. The probability that action will take place includes matters such as ? ? ? ? how highly the person rates or values action any previous experience with health personnel the availability and affordability of preventive services the threat that the condition holds for the individual or family Prescribed reading Study Clark (2008, or later editions), the section on Penders health promotion model. 10 Activity (1) Name the variables which can affect the preventive actions that a family and a community may take. (2) Write short notes on individual perceptions and indicate how they can influence health-promoting actions. Penders model is applicable to community health because the promotion of health is taken as the starting point and factors which influence the measures for promoting health are defined and emphasised. The model can guide and lead the community health nurse in promoting health. On the grounds of the variables and perceptions that are identified, she/he can make decisions on the degree of intervention that is necessary. For example a degree of knowledge and motivation may seem necessary to allow the community to take certain promotive actions, or to decide whether or not the available options are acceptable. The community health nurses task could then be to give the community the necessary information or to influence them to modify perceptions that are detrimental to their health. Depending on the specific problems or behaviour that deviates from a healthy living pattern, the culture of the community, the level of literacy and so on, the community health nurse can plan a programme or develop his or her own model based on Penders promotive model. (Clark 2008:257) 1. 8 Gordons functional health pattern framework Historically, conceptual models in nursing have employed Gordons health-related behaviours and developed them into an assessment model with 11 functional health patterns. Your prescribed book (Edelman Mandle 2006) uses this framework throughout in the assessment of each developmental stage. The 11 functional health patterns include: * * * * * * * * * * * pattern of health perception-health management nutritional-metabolic pattern elimination pattern activity-exercise pattern sleep-rest pattern cognitive-perceptual pattern self-perception-self-concept pattern roles-relationships pattern sexuality-reproductive pattern oping-stress tolerance pattern values-beliefs pattern (Edelman Mandle 2006:131) Read Edelman and Mandle (2006 or later edition), the section on functional health patterns: assessment of the individual. 11 1. 9 Conclusion Various theories/models applicable to community health were discussed in this learning unit. It is very important that you as a community health nurse have an understanding of these theories/models and how they could be applied to community health. Assessment criteria (1) Define the following terms: ? ? ? ? ? theory model conceptual framework phenomenon concept (2) (3) (4) (5) 6) Define the different constructs of Orems theory. Explain the defence mechanism in Neumans theory. Describe the principles on which Penders promotion of health model are based. Name the three elements of the dimensions model of community health nursing. Name the dimensions of the dimension of health in the dimensions model of community health nursing. (7) List the functional health patterns in Gordons functional health pattern framework. Note: Application of selected models/theories will be assessed in part 2 of the study guide. 12 PART 2 THE INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY AS CLIENT 14 Learning unit 2 The family as client Outcomes When you have worked through this learning unit you will be able to: * * * * * * * 2. 1 describe the concept of family describe the structure of the family describe different family types and their characteristic features describe the stages of family development discuss family functions describe the family as a social system discuss cultural values in the family Introduction The family is the basic social unit in any community. Family members usually share living arrangements, responsibilities, goals, the continuity of generations, and a sense of belonging and affection. How well a family works together and meets any crisis depends on the composition of the family (the structure), the activities or roles performed by family members (the functioning) and how well the family is able to organise itself against potential threats. 2. 2 Describing the concept of family Clark (2008:318) states: A family is a composed of two or more persons who are joined by bonds of sharing and emotional closeness and who identify themselves as being part of the family. Unlike those of other social systems, family relationships are characterized by intimacy, emotional intensity, and persistence over time. Santrock (2006:216) states: [The family is] a social system, a constellation of subsystems defined in terms of generation, gender and role. Divisions of labour among family members define particular sub-units, and attachments define others. Each family member is a participant in several subsystems. Some are dyadic (involving two people) some polyadic (involving more than two people). Stanhope and Lancaster (2006:322) refer to the following definition: A family refers to two or more individuals who depend on one another for emotional, physical, and/or financial support. The members of the family are self-defined. 15 Activity Ask different members of the multi-disciplinary health team to define family. Analyse the responses for similarities and differences. 2. 3 Structure of the family Family structure is the organised pattern or hierarchy of members that determines how they interact. Components of a family structure include the role of each family member and how they complement each other, the familys value system, communication patterns and power hierarchy. The family structure influences the way that a family functions. Allender Spradley 2005:526) The genogram shows family information graphically in order to view complex family patterns over a period of time, usually three generations or more. d. 1956 Heart Peg 71 Housewife Al 72 Grocer Sue Housewife John Steelworker d. 1982 Cancer Mark 37 Engineer Jan 36 Housewife Jim 9 Jack 46 Mechanic Mary 16 Pat 41 Waitress Married 1979 Steve 18 Clerk Earl 17 Student Detroit Fig 2. 1 Genogram Source: Allende r Spradley (2005:528) Nan 4 Married 1977 Divorced 1979 Joe 45 Teacher Sam 20 Student Lou 13 Los Angeles Married 1983 Ann 39 Nurse Pam 11 16 Activity Draw a genogram of your own family. 2. 4 Types of families There are many family types and a family type may change over time as it is affected by birth, work, death, divorce and the growth of family members. * * * * * * * The nuclear conjugal family. The traditional nuclear family structure consists of a husband, wife and children. Most young people move away from their parents when they marry and form nuclear families (no grandparents, aunts or uncles live in the home). The nuclear family is found in all ethnic and socio-economic groups, and is accepted by most religions. Today the number of nuclear families is declining as a result of the increase in divorce, single parenthood and remarriage, the acceptance of alternative lifestyles, and greater disparity. The extended (multi-generational) family. The extended family includes the nuclear family as well as other family members such as grandmothers, grandfathers, aunts, uncles, cousins and grandchildren. The advantage of such a family is that it means more people may serve as resources during crises and also provides more role models for behaviour and learning values. The single parent family. Single parent families consist of an adult woman or man and a child or children. Single parent families result from divorce, out-of-wedlock pregnancies, absence or death of a spouse, or adoption by a single person. A health problem in a single parent family is almost always a serious matter, because there is no backup person for childcare when the parent is ill. The blended family. The term blended family refers to a remarriage or a reconstituted family, where a divorced or widowed person with children marries someone who also has children of his or her own. Children of blended families are exposed to different ways of living and also have increased security and resources. They may become more adaptable to new situations. However, rivalry may arise among the children for the attention of a parent or there may be competition with the step-parent for the love of the biological parent. The communal family. The communal family is made up of groups of people who have chosen to live together as an extended family group. Their relationships with each other are motivated by social values or interests rather than by kinship. Because of the number of people present, members may have few set traditional family roles. The values of commune members are often religiously or spiritually based and may be more oriented to freedom and free choice than those of a traditional family structure. The cohabitation family. The cohabiting family consists of two persons who are living together, but remain unmarried. They may be heterosexual or homosexual. Some such relationships are temporary but others are long-lasting. Reasons for cohabitation include the desire for a trial marriage, the increased safety that results from living together and financial factors. The single alliance family. Many single young adults live together in shared apartments, dormitories or homes for companionship and financial security. Although these relationships are often temporary, they have the same characteristics as cohabitation families. 17 * * The homosexual family. The homosexual family is a form of cohabitation where a same sex couple live together and share a sexual relationship. Such a relationship offers support in times of crisis that is comparable with that offered by a traditional nuclear or cohabitation family. The foster family. Children whose parents are unable to care for them are laced in a foster home by a child protection agency. Foster parents usually receive remuneration for their care. Foster families may also include the parents own biological or adopted children. Foster care is theoretically temporary until children can be returned to their own parents (Clark 2008:318). Prescribed reading Read Clark (2008, or later edition), types of fami lies. 2. 5 Stages of family development Stage 1: Beginning family During this first stage of family development, members work to accomplish three specific tasks: * * * to establish a mutually satisfying relationship to learn to relate well to their families of origin f applicable, to engage in reproductive life planning The first stage of family life is a tenuous one, as evidenced by the high rate of divorce or separation of partners at this stage. The time frame for this stage extends from marriage to the birth of the first child. Stage 2: The early child-bearing family The birth or adoption of a first child is usually an exciting yet stressful event in a family. It requires economic and social role changes. The duration of this stage is from the birth or adoption of the first child to 30 months after this date. The following developmental tasks are usually accomplished during this stage: * * * he establishment of a stable family unit the reconciliation of conflict regarding develo pmental tasks facilitating developmental tasks of family members Stage 3: The family with pre-school children A family with pre-school children is a busy family as children at this age demand a great deal of time related to growth and developmental needs and safety: accidents are a major health concern at this stage. The time frame for this stage is when the oldest child is two to five years of age. Developmental tasks during this stage include: * * * integration of second or third child socialisation of children beginning of separation from children 18 Stage 4: The family with school-age children Parents of school-age children have the major responsibility of preparing their children to be able to function in a complex world. At the same time they have to maintain their own satisfying marriage relationship ? this can be a difficult time for a family. Many families need the support of tertiary services such as friends, church organisations or counselling. The time frame for the family with school-age children is when the oldest child is 6 to 13 years old. Developmental tasks during this stage include: * * * separation from children to a greater degree fostering education and socialisation aintenance of marriage Stage 5: The family with teenage/adolescent children The primary goal for parents with teenagers differs considerably from that of the previous developmental stages. Family ties must now be loosened to allow adolescents more freedom and prepare them for life on their own. Rapid technological advances have increased the gap be tween generations ? this can make stage 5 a trying time for both parents and children. Violence, accidents, homicide and suicide are the major causes of death in adolescents ? and death rates from HIV are growing. This places a still greater responsibility on the family. The time frame for this stage is when the eldest child is 13 to 20 years of age. Developmental tasks of this stage include the following: * * * maintenance of marriage development of new communication channels maintenance of standards Stage 6: The launching centre family For many parents this stage when children leave to establish their own households is the most difficult. It appears as though the family is breaking up and parental roles change from those of mother and father to guideposts. The parents may experience a loss of self-esteem as they feel themselves replaced by other people. For the first time they may start feeling old and less able to cope with responsibilities. The time frame for this stage is from the time the first child leaves home to the time the last child leaves home. The following developmental tasks should be accomplished during stage 6: * * * * * promotion of independence integration of in-law children restoring of marital relationship developing of outside interests assisting own aging parents Stage 7: The family of middle years At this stage a family returns to a two-partner nuclear family, as before childbearing. Some partners see this stage as the prime time of their lives with the opportunity to do things they never had time or finances for, such as travelling and hobbies. Others may experience this time as a period of gradual decline without the constant activity and stimulation of children in the home and may experience the empty nest syndrome. Support people may 19 also not be as plentiful as earlier in the parents lives. The time frame for this stage is from the time the last child leaves to retirement. Developmental tasks for this stage include: * * * developing leisure activities provision of a healthy environment ustaining a satisfying relationship with children and grandchildren Stage 8: The family in retirement or older age The number of families of retirement age is increasing rapidly, with people living longer as a result of advanced technology, medical research and increasing health consciousness. Family members of this group are, however, more apt to suffer from chronic and dis abling conditions than people in the younger age groups. The time frame for this stage lasts from retirement to death. Developmental tasks include the following (Clark 2008:323): * * * maintaining satisfying living arrangements adjusting to reduced income djusting to loss of spouse Prescribed reading Study Duvalls and Carter and McGoldricks stages of family development in Clark (2008, or later editions). 2. 6 The family as social system All families share certain characteristics. Every family is a social system with its own cultural values, specific roles, functions and structure and each family moves through recognisable developmental stages. A social system consists of a group of people who share common characteristics and who are mutually dependent. What affects one member affects the whole family, and vice versa. Families have certain features that differ from other social systems: * * * Families last longer than many other social systems. Families are inter-generational social systems consisting of three or sometimes four generations. Family systems include both biological and affinal relationships (relationships created by law or interest). Biological aspects of family relationships create links to a larger kin group that are not found in other social systems. A social network support map gives a detailed display of the quality and quantity of social connections. The community nurse can use this to help the family understand its support systems and to form a basis for nursing interventions. 20 Fig 2. Social network support map Source: Allender Spradley (2005:528) 2. 7 Cultural values in the family The cultural values in a family can have a major influence on how a family views health and health care systems. Each new generation takes on the values of the previous generation, passing traditions and cultures from generation to generation. A familys cultural values and behaviours can either facilitate or impede the promotion of health and prevention of dis ease. Prescribed reading Read Clark (2008, or later editions), the chapter on the cultural context. Activity (1) Apply the four principles of cultural assessment to the family. 2) Discuss culturally competent care. h Feedback Note the following points: 21 (1) You needed to view the culture in the context in which it developed, examine the underlying premise of culturally determined behaviour and the meaning of behaviour in the cultural context. There is a need to recognise intercultural variation. (2) You needed to define cultural competence, consider the characteristics and challenges of cultural competence and the modes of culturally competent care. 2. 8 Family functions Family functions are the activities that a family performs to meet the needs of its members. These needs include basic needs such as food, clothes, housing, emotional support and guidance. All families ? regardless of the type of family ? have in common these basic needs that require a family to function in certain ways to ensure family survival. As the social system changes, the family system has to adapt if it is to meet individual needs and equip its members to participate in the social system. The family is a hierarchical system which is usually built on kinship, power, status and privileged relationships that may be related to age, gender, personality and health. All family functions can be reduced to two basic ones: * *